Mental Illnesses And Mental Health - 1165 Words

Introduction World Health Organization (WHO, 2014) defines Mental health as a state of well-being in which the individual realizes his or her own abilities, can cope with the normal stresses of life, can work productively and fruitfully and is able to make a contribution to his or her community. Whereas Mental illnesses (MI) are characterized by alterations in thinking, mood or behavior associated with significant distress and impaired functioning (Health Canada, 2012). MI affects people of all ages, educational and income levels and cultures. Example of MI includes depression, anxiety disorders, schizophrenia, eating disorders and addictive behaviors. According to Center for addiction and Mental Health (CAMH, 2009) 2% of the total population in the world are affected by serious MI. Moreover, Public Health Agency Canada (PHAC, 2012) claims that 1 in 5 Canadians will experience a MI in their lifetime and remaining 4 will have a friend, family member or colleague who suffers from mental illness. I t is a well-known and accepted statistic 20% of people with mental disorders have a co-occurring substance use problem (PHAC,2012). According to the (Health Canada, 2002), MI are a major contributor to hospital costs; the cost supporting someone with serious MI to live in the community is $34,418 per year (all cost) and the cost of keeping someone with serious MI in the hospital is $170,820. Therefore, at present mental illnesses is an important challenge to public health in Canada.Show MoreRelatedMental Illnesses And Mental Health1941 Words   |  8 PagesMental illnesses lead to more disability than any other chronic illnesses and contribute significantly to the burden of diseases worldwide; moreover, the number of patients with mental illnesses and co-occurring physical illnesses are on the rise (SAMHSA, 2012; WHO, 2011). To meet this challenge, more psychiatric nurses with appropriate mental health training are needed, especially in the United States and China. Psychiatric-mental health nurses work with individuals and families to assess theirRead MoreMental Illnesses : A Mental Health Disorder1653 Words à ‚  |  7 PagesMental illnesses are brain diseases rooted in biology. Approximately one in every four adults has experienced a mental health disorder according to the Huffington Post. National Alliance on Mental Illness (NAMI) statistic identified mood disorders as the third most common cause for hospitalization in the U.S. for youth and adults. Mental illness compared to other chronic diseases is far more complicated and subjective. This serious and objective health problem has become increasingly obvious recentlyRead MoreMental Health Treatment Of Mental Illnesses1195 Words   |  5 Pages20% of all children show at least minimal impairment from a mental health illness (Odar, C. o., Canter, K., Roberts, M. m. 2013). Around 31% of girls and 42% of boys between the ages of 9 and 16 years old meet the criteria of at least one mental health illness (Costello, E. J., Mustillo, S., Erkanli, A., Keeler, G., Angold, A. 2003). Some of these illnesses may include schizophrenia, bipolar d isease, depression, etc. These illnesses may require continuous care and treatment for many years andRead MoreAwareness For Mental Health Illnesses1526 Words   |  7 Pagesto raise awareness for mental health illnesses. I wanted to bring this sensitive, yet common, issue to light. The subject of mental illness is unfortunately a taboo in many cultures and those who suffer from the extreme cases are ignored or they do not receive the proper treatment. Our community unfortunately struggles with stigma related to mental illness and disclosure of such a sensitive topic. I wanted to get the students of AIS/ACP to understand that mental illnesses are very common in our communityRead MoreChildren With Mental Health Illnesses Essay975 Words   |  4 Pageswith mental health illnesses, as the process of having to explain how and why they satisfy the eligibility criteria, which, is mainly aimed at physical needs and not mental health needs to someone they do not know under assessment condi tions can be discouraging. Additionally, if a claimant is unsuccessful, appealing against the decision can be a disempowering process if the support required is not available. Situations of high stress are likely to have a negative influence on physical health and mentalRead MorePrevalence Of Mental Health Illnesses Essay1585 Words   |  7 PagesPrevalence of Mental Health Illnesses in Inmates In this country, individuals with a mental health illness make up half of all correctional facility intakes, which is rivaled with eleven percent of the overall populace, however, only 1 in 9 incarcerated individuals are given any care for their mental illness (Anasseril, 2007). When the much-needed care is absent in prisons and jails, inmates with mental health disorders experience excruciating signs and their disorder can decline and be plaguedRead MoreMental Health Illnesses Have A Genetic Contribution1534 Words   |  7 Pagesshow that mental health illnesses have a genetic contribution. Mental health professionals have long known that certain mental illnesses can run in families, due to the fact that most, the chance of obtaining schizophrenia or bipolar disorder with no genetic factor is around one perfect, as to where if someone has a close relative with a certain disorder, such as a parent or sibling, the risk factor jumps to around ten percent. The genetic force behin d the abundance of mental illnesses is especiallyRead MoreThe Impact of Mental Illnesses and Health Problems from Work-Related Stress on Employees in Office Jobs2507 Words   |  10 PagesThe Impact of Mental Illnesses and Health Problems from Work-Related Stress on Employees in Office Jobs Introduction Year after year a behavioral change began to impact her life; she became irritable, fatigued and gained almost fifty pounds. She was no longer fun to be around and isolated herself away from everyone. Her kids would ask if she was okay and knew something was wrong. The work-related stress and harassment she received from her bosses triggered symptoms of depression. The job tookRead MoreMental Illness Of Mental Health Disorders1590 Words   |  7 Pagessomewhat reliable evidence has been gathered on mental illnesses and their prevalence. Before around the 1980’s though, the evidence that was gathered on mental illnesses was too inconsistent to be credible. In a survey conducted by the World Health Organization’s department of World Mental Health, data was gathered on the prevalence of mental health disorders in 14 countries around the world. The results of these surveys conclude that mental health disorders are more prevalent than any other chronicRead MoreThe Effect s Of Bipolar Disorder On Individuals, Families And Society1109 Words   |  5 PagesMental illness is a leading cause of disability in Canada. All Canadians are likely to be indirectly affected through a mental illness in a family, friend or colleague. Statistics showed that 1 in 5 Canadians experiences a mental health or addiction problem. (Mental Illness and Addictions: Facts and Statistics, n.d.). This report will be focusing on one of the more common mental illness — bipolar disorder. Bipolar disorder, also known as manic-depressive illness, is a serious medical condition that

Auditing and Assurance Business Research Opportunity

Question: Describe aout the Auditing and Assurance for Business Research Opportunity. Answer: Introduction This study deals with company named as Wesfarmers Limited listed in Australian Stock Exchange. In this particular assignment, emphasis has been given for understanding the audit engagement report for the year 2017. The present study gather information as well as preparation of report for meeting audit collaborates as well as audit managers. The first question explains the operational aspects of Wesfarmers Limited in areas like retail, liquor as well as home improvement and department stores. Then, Wesfarmers Limited faces some of the issues with auditing activities following related laws as well as regulations (Simnett, Carson and Vanstraelen 2016). It further gives information on understanding major and minor competitors of Wesfarmers Limited. Therefore, at the end, strength and weakness are explained for Wesfarmers Limited. 1. Wesfarmers Audit Engagement 2017 Part A Areas in which Wesfarmers conduct its operations Wesfarmers Limited is an Australian-listed company based in Australia. This particular organization conducts its business operations in areas such as supermarkets, hotels, home improvements, department stores as well as liquor and convenience stores. It is one of the largest private sector employing around 220000 staff members and shareholder base of 530000 on approximate basis (Redmayne 2013). The main objective of Wesfarmers Limited is providing satisfactory return to potential stakeholders. Part B Identification of laws and regulations Wesfarmers Limited is committed towards compiling with laws as well as regulations for countries operating its business in ethical way. This particular company is consistent with principles of honesty, fairness as well as respect and integrity (Moroney et al. 2014). Bribery as well as other related improper refers in the policy considers as criminal offenses for company and individuals at the same time. This is presented as inconsistent in aligning with Wesfarmers Values. There are various laws prohibiting with improper payments covering in the policy in applicable for all countries. Wesfarmers Limited who engages in trading activities operates these activities. Some of the Laws and Regulations are as follows: Australian Criminal Code US Foreign Corrupt Practices Act UK Bribery Act Competition and Consumer Act in Australia Anti-bribery policy The main purpose of this policy brings out the responsibilities of Wesfarmers Limited personnel in observing as well as upholding the prohibition on bribery and other related improper conduct (Junior, Best and Cotter 2014). On the contrary, Wesfarmers Limited provides information as well as guidance in recognizing and dealing with instances on areas such as bribery and corruption at the same time. This policy is applicable to Wesfarmers Limited for all Directors as well as employees. It is given in diversified nature for Wesfarmers Limited operating in and across Australia. Wesfarmers Limited adopts own anti-bribery policies in related with operational aspects in the most appropriate way. Wesfarmers Limited Personnel understands as well as complies with given policies. Wesfarmers Limited does not encourage accepting or requesting bribes, payment facilitation as well as money laundering and secret commission activities (Hay, Stewart and Botica Redmayne 2016). Wesfarmers Limited does not approve in requesting for irregular payment for winning for making business decisions in an effective way. Wesfarmers Limited complies with reporting as well as approval process in areas such as gifts as well as entertainment and hospitality. Wesfarmers Limited does not offer or receive any type of gift by relevant Anti-bribery Officer (Simnett, Carson and Vanstraelen 2016). Part C Primary Competitors in retail sector Wesfarmers Limited mainly starts its farmer cooperation in and around Western Australia few centuries ago. In the recent world, Wesfarmers Limited is the most diverse companies and largest retailers that aim at acquisition of food and liquid retailing activities under Coles Group. Wesfarmers Limited shows interest in far-ranging business involving general merchandise (Kmart and Target), Home improvement as Burnings as well as office products retailing. Wesfarmers Limited also engages its operations in coal mining, fertilizers production as well as gas processing and safety products (Hardidge et al. 2013). Wesfarmers Limited believes in providing agricultural merchandise as well as services for future analysis purpose Two Major Competitor of Wesfarmers Limited Woolworths Limited- Woolworths Limited is major competitor of Wesfarmers Limited as both operate its activities in retail sector (Simnett, Carson and Vanstraelen 2016). Both the companies are listed in Australian Stock Exchange. Woolworth Limited operates in Australia as well as New Zealand involving more than 1000 supermarkets. Addition to that, Woolworths Limited sells gasoline as well as leverages in form of distribution network. Therefore, Woolworths Limited provides wholesale merchandise especially for third-party supermarkets in the most appropriate way (Carson, Fargher and Zhang 2016). Metcash Limited- Metcash Limited is one of the wholesale grocery suppliers as well as liquor distribution in and around Australia. This particular business organization has distribution units serving more than 2500 grocery stores. This company operates as Australian Liquid Marketers supplying for more than 13000 liquid stores. Two Minor Competitor of Wesfarmers Limited Caltex Australia Limited- Caltex Australia Limited occupies the topmost position in oil refining as well as marketing company with around 30% share especially in retail fuel market (Simnett, Carson and Vanstraelen 2016). This particular business organization engages in refining as well as marketing of fuels and lubricants in and across the country with network of more than 2000 brand gas stations. Caltex Australia Limited owns as well as operates 11 coastal storage terminals as well as petroleum products and lubricant blending plants. In the year 2015, Chevron mainly sold its stake of 50% to Caltex Australia Limited (Botica?Redmayne 2013). Myer- Myer Limited is one of minor competitors of Wesfarmers Limited operating in retail sector. Myer Limited segments into price conscious group targeting to departmental stores. Myer Limited targets middle class as well as upper middle class individuals. Myer Limited positions its products in styles as well as quality in the most appropriate way. Myer Limited is an Australian chain for upscale of operations from high range of departmental stores (Moroney et al. 2014). Myer Limited has stores in the Australian States as well as Australian Capital Territory. Myer Limited offers large variety of brands at affordable prices for rendering consumers. Myer Limited has strong brand presence as well as reputation in and around Australia. 2. SWOT analysis for Wesfarmers Strengths Weakness Wesfarmers Limited established in the year 1914 depicting as powerful brands legacy Wesfarmers Limited emphasis majorly upon community development initiatives Wesfarmers Limited delivers convenience as well as customer services (Moroney et al. 2014) Wesfarmers Limited has major key importance in quality as well as performance Wesfarmers Limited has many stores as well as strong workforce of more than 200000 staff members (Moroney et al. 2014) Wesfarmers Limited aims at providing special offers as well as discounts for attracting customers as far as possible Wesfarmers Limited sales with the help of online formats Wesfarmers Limited renders variety of suits in price points. Wesfarmers Limited is a market leader in retail sector and this is the reason that this company remains under scrutiny for undertaking any critical decisions Wesfarmers Limited has low geographical presence. Conclusion At the end of the study, it is concluded that Wesfarmers occupies the topmost position in the retail sector. This particular business organization follows core principles and code of conduct for meeting the objectives in the near future. It has strong brand presence in and across Australia. Laws and regulations are explained above with proper justification. Wesfarmers Limited obtains requires approvals especially for donations as well as sponsorship. In other words, Wesfarmers Limited maintains accurate records for dealing with third party. Wesfarmers Limited should be vigilant in reporting any breach of contract for any type of suspicious behavior in relation with policy. Reference List Botica?Redmayne, N., 2013. Auditing and Assurance Services in Australia: An Integrated Approach. Pacific Accounting Review. Carson, E., Fargher, N. and Zhang, Y., 2016. Trends in Auditor Reporting in Australia: A Synthesis and Opportunities for Research. Australian Accounting Review, 26(3), pp.226-242. Hardidge, D., Abeysekera, I., Chew, T.G., De Santi, R., Egan, T., Ghandar, A., Jakubicki, P., Lee, A., Luckins, J., Ridley, C. and Shying, M., 2013. A guide to understanding auditing and assurance: listed companies. Hay, D., Stewart, J. and Botica Redmayne, N., 2016. The Role of Auditing in Corporate Governance in Australia and New Zealand: A Research Synthesis. Available at SSRN 2838066. Junior, R.M., Best, P.J. and Cotter, J., 2014. Sustainability reporting and assurance: a historical analysis on a world-wide phenomenon. Journal of Business Ethics, 120(1), pp.1-11. Moroney, R., Campbell, F., Hamilton, J. and Warren, V., 2014. Auditing: A Practical Approach. Wiley Global Education. Redmayne, N.B., 2013. Auditing and Assurance Services and Ethics in Australia: An Integrated Approach. Journal of Accounting Organizational Change. Simnett, R., Carson, E. and Vanstraelen, A., 2016. International Archival Auditing and Assurance Research: Trends, Methodological Issues and Opportunities. Auditing: A Journal of Practice and Theory.

Main Causes of Pollution in Urban and Rural Areas Essay Example

Main Causes of Pollution in Urban and Rural Areas Paper Over time, land pollution degrades the quality of not only the land in n area where waste is present, but also the quality of things growing in that land. Land pollution contaminates ground water, kills animal and plant species, causes disease and more. One of the major causes of land pollution is industrialization. Mechanized creation of goods sacrifices resource conservation in favor of speedy and inexpensive production. This results in a greater amount of industrial waste which must be disposed of. When it is not disposed of correctly it becomes surface waste and creates land pollution. Another cause of land pollution is chemical treatment of the land. Organic farming is the exception not the rule. Most farmers use harsh chemicals to fertilize their crops, eliminate weeds, kill of pests who pose a threat to the crop and more. The excess chemicals leave waste residue in the land and pollute it-Waste from human activity is, however, the most common cause of pollution. Waste causing pollution is caused by careless disposal of things that are thrown away including littering, and failure to recycle. Many teems go into a landfill which could be recycled and reused to both limit the amount of natural resources used to create synthetic products and reduce the amount of waste in land fills and private dumps creating land pollution. Land pollution is serious because it contributes to other forms of contamination including water and air pollution, as particles from the land pollution work into the water cycle. Limiting or eliminating land pollution improves every aspect of global conservation, and pollution management. This prevents potentially dangerous materials from negatively impacting the global quality of life. We will write a custom essay sample on Main Causes of Pollution in Urban and Rural Areas specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Main Causes of Pollution in Urban and Rural Areas specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Main Causes of Pollution in Urban and Rural Areas specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer

veterinary shadow day essays

veterinary shadow day essays When I first arrived Lisa The girl that I shadowed told me that there was an emergency with one of the animals. It ended up that a one-year-old beagle ate an entire thing of metabolite, and then slowly started to die. The liver had shut down, and the heart rate was up to 300. Lisa told me that taking a thing of metabolite was like taking 50 cups of coffee at once. The owners of the beagle were there and bowling. The beagles name was Murry. Murry's body slowly was shutting down one thing after another. The owners made the decision the dog was going to be put to sleep. We got the dog ready to be taken out. They undid all the cords from the dog so they could take it to another room. I said goodbye to the dog, and then they took it into the other room so that the owners could be there when they put him to sleep. After that happened they then had to put a sleep a little hedgehog that had cancer on its mouth. We then did two regular checkups with one cat and with one dog. Tho se when great. After that we had a dog come in and it ended up having an affection that might end up killing it. I never heard the end result. The last thing that I did there was that a black lab had been bitten by another dog, and that dog ripped a hole in the neck of the black lab. The doctors had to perform surgery on the dog to close up the holes in the neck. They first had to clean it out with qutips. And blood stated to come out right then I was a little dizzy and I thought I was going to faint. But thank god I didnt. I saw a cat get dental work on it. And a cat get a bath and they had to blow dry it and brush the hair while it was a sleep. I thought that the work place environment was very clean and very professional. On my pictures on the poster it shows you that they even had a place for dogs to go in and a separate place for cats to go in they also have different waiting rooms for each of them. I could eas ...

Case analysis Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Analysis - Case Study Example This increases the pressure on the information department compelling the creation of new ways of conducting business. Such factors provide a great challenge in the management of both the department and the organization thereby complicating Brown’s work. Additionally, Brown had shifted from the company for a number of years. By the time of his return, the company had changed and expanded thereby compelling the development of new mechanisms of conducting business. The change thus makes his management of the department more complex as he loses touch with both the clients and other employees at the organization. His attempts of creating a formal system within the department meet a great opposition from the rest of the organizational structure. Apparently, the organization lacked a formal structure and relied on its contact with the target market to carry out business. This is unlike the management process that Brown had in mind thereby resulting in a conflict of the management pro cesses thus causing a massive operational snarl up. Any form of conflict in the management especially between the organization and one of its key departments such as the information technology headed by Brown resulted in a great operational conflict that possibly slowed down the pace of service delivery. Question 2 The Michael Hammer’s Process and Enterprise Maturity Model is a management assessment mechanism that analyzes the level of organizational maturity through a number of management components. The Pinnacle West Corporation for example performs different in a number of these factors thereby placing it strategically in the development ladder. One of such factors is the organizational culture. A mature organization must have a recognized culture of conducting business. Organizational cultures determine the employee relations and the manner in which the organization conducts business. Additionally, the model assesses the success of any organization culture through the res ults it promises the organization. The PWC has an informal structure and relies on the people for contact. The culture had thus far steered the organization into success and its presence therefore proved the organization mature enough. The other integral factor in the model is leadership, the PWC was divide into department each led by a manager yet all working in unison to result in a cohesive organization. The presence of clearly labeled management structure and the effective flow of command in the organization depict great coordination in the management of the organization. Expertise is yet another factor in the model. The PWC employs established employees with the adequate experience and knowledge to steer the organization into success. Expertise refers to the ability of the employees to execute their mandate efficiently. The feature dictates that the employees must have adequate knowledge and experience to undertake their tasks. Finally, the other factor in the model is governan ce; the organization has an elaborate system of governance based on its management mechanism thereby portraying a great level of maturity. Question 3 The grass root strategy in management seeks to include the ideas of every employee in the management process. The strategy encourages operational dynamism as it solicits the ideas of every employee in project execution. This is a motivational strategy of management since

Strategic Change Management in Larnaca General Hospital Assignment

Strategic Change Management in Larnaca General Hospital - Assignment Example The hospital was established in the year 1984 (Larnaca General Hospital, 2012). The hospital has been built upon the land which belongs to the â€Å"Church Committee of the Monastery of St. George Kontos†. Church committee donated the land to hospital authority during early 1980’s. Ministry of Health provided a donation to hospital authority in order to build the healthcare unit. The hospital was opened on 24th April 1985 by Spyros Kyprianou (former president of Cyprus during that time). Funding Situation Various nonprofit organizations such as Anti-Cancer Society of Cyprus and Cyprus Association of Cancer Patients and Ministry of Health will provide a fund for breast health center of Larnaca general hospital. There will not be any other stakeholders except mentioned nonprofit organizations. Mission Statement In accordance with the Directorate of Nursing Services the hospital strives for improving nursing care continuously. According to the directorate, they need constr uctive cooperation as well as participation from nurses during difficult and complex healthcare situation in order to achieve the mission objective. Change Situation Breast Health Center Breast cancer has emerged as a pernicious disease for women in last fifteen years and statistics show that in the country of Cyprus number of women affected by breast cancer has been increased sharply in recent times. There are three major cancer prevention initiatives such as Anti-Cancer society, Cyprus Association of Cancer Patients and Friends are present in the country. In the district of Larnaca, there are no special centers for observing initial symptoms of breast cancer although it is a way to prevent the disease in early stages. It is very hard to find accurate and valid healthcare data of the Cypriot population due to strict government rules. A report published by CYSTAT or Statistical Service of Cyprus shows that a number of women dying due to breast cancer are relatively high in contrast to other diseases. The statistical report shows that more than 32% of women are suffering from breast cancers. The following diagram can be used in order to understand the severity of breast cancer in the country. (Source: Golna et al., 2004) The Larnaca General Hospital needs to establish breast health center in order to reduce stress and nervousness associated with preliminary stages of breast cancer. The study shows that 1109 Cypriot women were diagnosed with breast cancer during the time period of 1999-2005. The study also shows that nearly 400 cases of breast cancer are reported by women while 90% of cases get registered by hospital officials. Although cancer patients receive treatment from Bank of Cyprus Oncology Centre of Nicosia very few people in Larnaca district have the access to such facilities.

Basic Assumptions in Accounting

Basic Assumptions in Accounting Accounts are produced by all companies as a way of providing information to all third parties interested in the company’s performance. One of the primary aims of these accounts is to reduce the problems inherent in the agency relationship of the directors with the other interested stakeholders such as investors, employees and even government bodies. Due to the wide range of uses for accounts, it is little wonder that research into the way that these accounts are drafted and presented has had to lay down some fundamental assumptions in the way that accounts are written. However, in reality the assumptions that have underlined the analysis of accounts may, at times, be flawed, causing the overall analysis of these accounts to be at best incomplete and possibly even inaccurate (Hermanson, 2005)[1]. Assumption 1 – Accounts are Primarily for Shareholders This is a very common assumption and in many cases is not a damaging one. Even the law seems to support this assumption, with legislation requiring that annual accounts are produced and supplied to the shareholders (Companies Act 2006)[2]. This fuels the concept that the accounts are for the use of the shareholders, only. It is true, however, that accounts are largely for shareholders. The company belongs to the shareholders and is managed and run by the directors. This structure produces an agency problem with those running the business not being those individuals who ultimately benefit or suffer from its success or failure. Shareholders need the accounts in order to determine whether their investment is safe, whether they should be investing more, withdrawing their investment or asking certain questions of the board in relation to policies or activities. The accounts give valuable information to the shareholders in relation to the volume of sales, profitability, comparative analysis of key competitors and the overall value of the shares. Accounting standards have been developed with this key use in mind. It is necessary for all accounts to be audited by an independent auditor to determine that the accounts offer a true and fair value of the state of the financial position of the company. This is, of course, vital for the shareholders as they must trust the accounts being produced by the directors to be accurate, in order for them to make their investment decisions. Whilst all of these principles appear to be geared towards the shareholders, there are other users of the accounts that benefit equally from the standard set out in relation to published accounts. Other key users include the lenders. For many businesses, these stakeholders are absolutely vital and they will be largely interested in the same information as the shareholders, although will only really be concerned about whether the company has sufficient resource to pay back the loan that they have advanced to the company and that suitable security over assets exists (Watts, 2003)[3]. Employees are clearly interested in knowing the health and profitability of the company so that they can be comfortable with their own job security. However, this stakeholder group is often overlooked, despite its central role within the organisation. In addition, government agencies should not be overlooked, with agencies such as HM Revenue and Customs requiring information in order to collect the correct amount of corporation taxes (Brennan, 2000)[4]. Therefore, whilst shareholders may be the most visible group of stakeholders with an interest in the accounts, there are other stakeholders which also have an interest and should not be disregarded. Assumption 2 Accounting Measures a Concrete Reality which is Out There Prepared accounts are required to follow the basic principles such as relevance, understandability, consistency and comparability. Therefore, whilst accounts are prepared in line with the directors’ decisions and interpretations, there are certain underlying rules that must be followed to ensure that the accounts are as close to an unbiased, concrete reflection of the state of the business as is possible. In particular, this is important for the benefit of investor and shareholder comparisons. In order to make suitable judgements regarding investments and decisions about which company should be given support, the accounts of the two companies must be comparable. To be comparable the accounts must be as objective and factual as possible. However, just because it is desirable for the accounts to be a concrete reflection of what is ‘out there’ in the company does not mean that this is an assumption which can be drawn as being true. This need for consistency has been recognised by the International Accounting Standards Board which has developed, in so far as is possible, the financial reporting standards that companies need to follow in a bid to ensure that accounts are as close to being a concrete and comparable reflection as possible (Kroll, 2004)[5]. Take, for example, the way in which a company chooses to report its cash earned. The company could choose to operate on either a cash or on an accrual basis. Under the cash basis, the company would report income as soon as it actually arrives within the company, whereas the accrual basis shows the income earned at the time of the writing of the accounts, regardless of whether or not it has been already received. It is clear to see that the choice as to whether to follow a cash model or an accrual model will have a significant impact on the way in which the profit and loss appears in relation to the company. Other policies that are managed by international standards include issues such as the treatment of goodwill or depreciation, both areas that have traditionally allowed considerable director discretion. By having these basic accounting standards that companies must follow, there is certainly a move towards establishing concrete accounts. This, however, has not been fully achieved yet and, therefore, it is not fair to assume that all accounts are a completely concrete reflection of what is ‘out there’. Assumption 3 – Accounting Can be Neutral Clearly, it is desirable that financial accounts produced by companies are entirely neutral in the way that they are presented. Inaccuracy in accounts generally falls into two distinct categories, dishonesty or incompetence. Dishonesty has several different gradients and may be as simple as the desire by the management team to present a certain aspect of the business, whilst minimising the importance of other activities within the business. One of the main ways that a company could ensure that there is no element of dishonesty in the accounts is to have external auditors checking the accounts to ensure that they are a fair and accurate reflection of the company situation. Furthermore, with the financial reporting standards that have now been developed to ensure neutrality in the published accounts, companies are required to state definitively if they have deviated from the financial reporting standards, so that any move away from neutrality can be immediately and categorically identified. Therefore, whilst not all accounts will always be unbiased or neutral, identifying where neutrality has been deviated from, companies are now required to draw attention actively to this fact, thus increasing transparency. The use of external auditors in the preparation of the accounts is also a useful check and balance to ensure lack of misleading statements in the accounts (Cottingham, 1995)[6]. Despite all these measures, there remains the biased element of the accounts in the chairman’s statement. This is the opportunity for the board of directors to state their opinion and to detail the rationale of the company in terms of previous decisions and the direction which the company is taking in the longer term. This element of the report will naturally result in a non-neutral position (Goch, 1975)[7]. Company accounts are produced, as established earlier, for the benefit of many stakeholders, although primarily they are used by the shareholders and lenders to assist their investment decision. It is only natural, therefore, that companies will choose to forward their best possible position for the accounts. Whilst there are checks and balances in place in the form of financial reporting standards and the requirement of the independent auditor, it is fair to state the accounts are not entirely neutral, at all times. Assumption 4 Accountants are Professionals and Have the Ability to use Sound Judgement Accountants are used at all levels by companies of all sizes to manage the financial affairs of the company and ultimately to produce the accounts for external use, on an annual basis. All qualified accountants are required to be members of professional bodies such as Institute of Chartered Accountants of England and Wales and have strict codes of professional ethics in relation to the way in which they conduct their role (Riahi-Belkaoui, 1992)[8]. Despite the need for these accountants to be controlled and to be managed in a way that they conduct their role, it is essential that they are given suitable freedom to exercise their own professional judgement. Increasing transparency requirements and the greater degree of prescription that is being placed on the accounting profession, in terms of financial reporting standards and requirement is changing the role of accountants in the preparation of accounts. Accounting standards have resulted in accountancy becoming much more of a science than an art form. There is a danger in this shift of emphasis. Accountants are professionals and their sound professional judgement is essential in ensuring that the most accurate company accounts are produced. However, this sound professional judgement is only useful if it is unbiased to the company itself, i.e. through an independent accountant or auditor (Thomas Keim, 2003)[9]. Internal accountants who are employees of the company are under the influence of the directors and, as such, may have an unhelpful level of bias towards the company. In this case, where there are competing requirements, accountants cannot be relied upon to exercise the same degree of sound professional judgment. Published accounts are only as good as the information that is supplied to the accountants preparing these accounts. If accountants are not given the full information in relation to the company, they will simply not produce accurate accounts, regardless of how sound their professional judgment is (Chisnall, 2001)[10]. Professional accountants, as a whole, are required under their own code of ethics to exercise professional judgment when conducting their roles and this is generally followed. Constraints are increasingly being placed on the way in which accountants can prepare accounts and this is restricting the ability to exercise professional judgment in all cases. Care must also be taken when considering accountants who are biased due to their position with the company. Conclusions Many assumptions are made when it comes to published financial accounts. In almost all cases, these assumptions are not universally true and care should always be taken to reconsider these assumptions, whenever accounts are being analysed. Any deviations from these assumptions could dramatically impact on the way in which the company accounts are viewed by all stakeholders concerned. Bibliography Brennan, N. Gray, S.J., 2000. Accountants’ reports on profit forecasts: regulation and practice. Managerial Auditing Journal, 15, 9. Chisnall, P., 2001. Fair value accounting – an industry view. Balance Sheet, 9, 1. Cottingham, J. Hussey, R., 1995. The Prevention of Misleading Accounts Through Disclosures of Related Party Transactions. Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance, 3, 4. Goch, D., 1975. The Changing Face of the Annual Report. Managerial Finance, 1, 3. Hermanson, R.H., Edwards, J.D. Maher, M.W., 2005. Accounting Principles. 8th ed., Freeload Press, Inc. Riahi-Belkaoui, A., 1992. Morality in Accounting. Quorum Books. Kroll, K.M., 2004. The Lowdown on Lean Accounting: A New Way of Looking at the Numbers. Journal of Accountancy, 198. Thomas Keim, M. Grant, C.T., 2003.To Tell or Not to Tell: An Auditing Case in Ethical Decision Making and Conflict Resolution. Issues in Accounting Education, 18. Watts, R. L., 2003. Conservatism in Accounting Part I: Explanations and Implications. Accounting Horizons, 17. Footnotes [1] Hermanson, R.H., Edwards, J.D. Maher, M.W., 2005. Accounting Principles. 8th ed., Freeload Press, Inc. [2] Companies Act 2006. Section 413. [3] Watts, R.L., 2003. Conservatism in Accounting Part I: Explanations and Implications. Accounting Horizons, 17. [4] Brennan, N. Gray, S.J., 2000. Accountants’ reports on profit forecasts: regulation and practice. Managerial Auditing Journal, 15, 9. [5] Kroll, Karen M., 2004. The Lowdown on Lean Accounting: A New Way of Looking at the Numbers. Journal of Accountancy, 198. [6] Cottingham, J. Hussey, R., 1995. The Prevention of Misleading Accounts Through Disclosures of Related Party Transactions. Journal of Financial Regulation and Compliance, 3, 4. [7] Goch, D., 1975. The Changing Face of the Annual Report. Managerial Finance, 1, 3. [8] Riahi-Belkaoui, A., 1992. Morality in Accounting. Quorum Books. [9] Thomas Keim, M. Grant, C.T., 2003. To Tell or Not to Tell: An Auditing Case in Ethical Decision Making and Conflict Resolution. Issues in Accounting Education, 18. [10] Chisnall, P., 2001. Fair value accounting – an industry view. Balance Sheet, 9, 1.